The Technical Definition Of A Reinforcer Is

The term "reinforcer" is central to understanding behavior and how it can be modified. It moves beyond everyday notions of reward and delves into the precise mechanisms that underpin learning. By grasping the technical definition of a reinforcer, we can more effectively design interventions to encourage desired behaviors across various contexts.

Reinforcement: A Deep Dive

Reinforcement, at its core, is a fundamental principle of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning, a term coined by B.F. Skinner, describes how behavior is strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow it. A reinforcer is the engine that drives this process. It's a stimulus that, when presented or removed following a behavior, increases the future probability of that behavior occurring again.

The Technical Definition of a Reinforcer

A reinforcer is any stimulus change that follows a response and increases the future frequency of that response. This definition, while seemingly simple, carries significant weight and needs careful unpacking. Let's break down each element:

• Stimulus Change: This refers to any alteration in the environment that can be detected by an individual's senses. It could be the presentation of something (like food), the removal of something (like a loud noise), or a change in the intensity of something (like a light becoming brighter).
• Follows a Response: The stimulus change must occur after the behavior, or response, of interest. The timing is crucial; if the stimulus change precedes the behavior, it's less likely to function as a reinforcer.
• Increases the Future Frequency: This is the litmus test for whether something is truly a reinforcer. The behavior that preceded the stimulus change must become more likely to occur in similar situations in the future. If the behavior doesn't increase in frequency, then, by definition, the stimulus change was not a reinforcer for that particular behavior in that particular context.

Types of Reinforcers

Reinforcers are not all created equal. They can be categorized in several ways, each offering a different perspective on how they influence behavior.

1. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement

This is perhaps the most fundamental distinction. It's crucial to remember that positive and negative don't refer to "good" and "bad" in this context. They refer to whether something is added or removed.

• Positive Reinforcement: This involves the presentation of a stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future. Think of giving a dog a treat (the stimulus) after it sits (the behavior). The treat increases the likelihood that the dog will sit again when asked. Examples include:

  • Giving a child praise for completing their homework.
  • Receiving a paycheck for doing work.
  • Getting a good grade on a test after studying hard.

• Negative Reinforcement: This involves the removal of a stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future. This stimulus is typically aversive – something unpleasant or unwanted. Think of taking an aspirin (the behavior) to get rid of a headache (the aversive stimulus). The removal of the headache increases the likelihood that you'll take aspirin again when you have a headache. Examples include:

  • Turning off a loud alarm clock.
  • Putting on sunscreen to avoid a sunburn.
  • Paying a bill to avoid late fees.

It's important to note that negative reinforcement is not punishment. Punishment aims to decrease a behavior, while negative reinforcement aims to increase a behavior by removing something aversive.

2. Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

This categorization is based on whether the reinforcer's value is innate or learned.

• Primary Reinforcers: These are stimuli that are inherently reinforcing, typically because they satisfy basic biological needs. Food, water, warmth, and physical comfort are all examples of primary reinforcers. Their reinforcing properties don't need to be learned; they are built into our biology.

• Secondary Reinforcers: These are stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers or other established secondary reinforcers. Money is a classic example. It has no inherent value in itself, but we learn that it can be exchanged for goods and services that satisfy our needs and desires. Other examples include:

  • Praise
  • Tokens
  • Grades
  • Social recognition

Secondary reinforcers are incredibly powerful because they can be used in a wide variety of situations and are often easier to deliver than primary reinforcers.

3. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Reinforcers

This distinction focuses on the source of the reinforcement.

• Intrinsic Reinforcers: These are reinforcers that come from within the individual. The activity itself is enjoyable or satisfying, and the reinforcement is the feeling of accomplishment, pleasure, or competence that results from engaging in the activity. Examples include:

  • The joy of solving a challenging puzzle.
  • The satisfaction of creating a work of art.
  • The feeling of accomplishment after completing a workout.

• Extrinsic Reinforcers: These are reinforcers that come from outside the individual. They are external rewards or consequences that are given for engaging in a particular behavior. Examples include:

  • Receiving a bonus at work.
  • Getting a trophy for winning a competition.
  • Earning a sticker for good behavior.

While extrinsic reinforcers can be effective in motivating behavior, it's generally believed that intrinsic motivation is more sustainable and leads to greater engagement and satisfaction.

4. Natural vs. Artificial Reinforcers

This categorization relates to how naturally the reinforcer occurs in the environment.

• Natural Reinforcers: These are reinforcers that occur naturally as a consequence of the behavior itself, without any deliberate arrangement. Examples include:

  • Successfully hitting a baseball (the feeling of the bat connecting and the ball flying).
  • A plant growing when watered.
  • A recipe turning out well after following the instructions.

• Artificial Reinforcers: These are reinforcers that are deliberately arranged to follow a specific behavior. Examples include:

  • Giving a student a star for answering a question correctly.
  • Providing a bonus for reaching a sales target.
  • Using a token economy in a classroom.

Artificial reinforcers are often used in therapeutic or educational settings to shape behavior, but the goal is often to transition to natural reinforcers over time.

Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Reinforcers

Not all reinforcers are equally effective, and what works for one person may not work for another. Several factors influence the effectiveness of a reinforcer:

• Immediacy: Reinforcers are most effective when they are delivered immediately after the behavior. The longer the delay, the weaker the association between the behavior and the consequence. This is why immediate praise or a small, immediate reward is often more effective than a larger reward promised for later.
• Contingency: The reinforcer must be delivered only when the desired behavior occurs. If the reinforcer is delivered regardless of the behavior, it will lose its effectiveness. The behavior must be contingent upon the reinforcement.
• Deprivation/Satiation: A reinforcer is more effective if the individual is deprived of it. For example, food will be a more potent reinforcer if someone is hungry. If the individual is satiated (has had plenty of the reinforcer), it will be less effective.
• Magnitude: The size or intensity of the reinforcer can influence its effectiveness. A larger or more desirable reinforcer is generally more effective than a smaller or less desirable one. However, the magnitude must be appropriate; too much of a reinforcer can lead to satiation or other problems.
• Individual Differences: What is reinforcing for one person may not be reinforcing for another. Reinforcers must be individualized to the specific person and the specific behavior. This requires careful observation and experimentation.
• Schedule of Reinforcement: How often the behavior is reinforced also matters. Different schedules of reinforcement (e.g., continuous, intermittent, fixed ratio, variable ratio) produce different patterns of behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement refers to the pattern in which reinforcement is delivered following a behavior. These schedules can have a dramatic impact on the rate, persistence, and predictability of the behavior.

1. Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)

In a continuous reinforcement schedule, every occurrence of the desired behavior is reinforced. This is useful for establishing a new behavior quickly. However, behaviors learned under CRF are also easily extinguished if the reinforcement stops.

2. Intermittent Reinforcement

In an intermittent reinforcement schedule, only some occurrences of the desired behavior are reinforced. This leads to behaviors that are more resistant to extinction. There are four main types of intermittent schedules:

• Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses. For example, FR5 means reinforcement is delivered after every 5th response. This schedule typically produces a high rate of responding, with a brief pause after reinforcement.
• Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses, with the average number of responses required being fixed. For example, VR5 means reinforcement is delivered after an average of 5 responses, but it could be after 2 responses, then after 8 responses, then after 5 responses, and so on. This schedule produces the highest rate of responding and is very resistant to extinction. Gambling is a classic example of a behavior maintained by a VR schedule.
• Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed. For example, FI5 minutes means reinforcement is delivered for the first response after 5 minutes have passed. This schedule produces a scalloped pattern of responding, with low rates of responding immediately after reinforcement and increasing rates of responding as the end of the interval approaches.
• Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a variable amount of time has elapsed, with the average amount of time being fixed. For example, VI5 minutes means reinforcement is delivered for the first response after an average of 5 minutes have passed. This schedule produces a steady, moderate rate of responding and is also resistant to extinction.

Misconceptions About Reinforcement

There are several common misconceptions about reinforcement that can lead to ineffective or even harmful practices.

• Reinforcement is the same as bribery: Bribery involves offering something to induce someone to do something they shouldn't be doing. Reinforcement, on the other hand, is used to increase the likelihood of desirable behaviors. The focus is on strengthening positive behaviors, not on manipulating someone into doing something unethical or illegal.
• Reinforcement makes people dependent on rewards: While it's true that over-reliance on extrinsic reinforcers can undermine intrinsic motivation, this is not an inevitable outcome. When reinforcement is used thoughtfully and systematically, it can help individuals develop new skills and habits that become intrinsically rewarding over time. The goal is often to fade out the extrinsic reinforcers as the behavior becomes more self-sustaining.
• Reinforcement is only for children or people with disabilities: Reinforcement is a fundamental principle of behavior that applies to everyone, regardless of age or ability. We all respond to consequences, whether we are aware of it or not. Understanding the principles of reinforcement can help us to design more effective strategies for achieving our goals, improving our relationships, and creating positive change in our lives.
• Punishment is more effective than reinforcement: While punishment can be effective in suppressing unwanted behaviors in the short term, it has several drawbacks. It can lead to negative emotional side effects, such as fear and anxiety. It doesn't teach the individual what they should be doing instead. And it can create a negative relationship between the punisher and the person being punished. Reinforcement, on the other hand, focuses on building positive behaviors and creating a more positive and supportive environment.

Applications of Reinforcement

The principles of reinforcement have wide-ranging applications in various fields:

• Education: Reinforcement is used to motivate students, improve academic performance, and manage classroom behavior. Teachers use praise, grades, stickers, and other rewards to reinforce desired behaviors, such as completing assignments, participating in class, and following rules.
• Parenting: Parents use reinforcement to teach their children new skills, encourage good behavior, and manage challenging behaviors. They use praise, hugs, toys, and other rewards to reinforce desired behaviors, such as sharing, being polite, and completing chores.
• Therapy: Reinforcement is a core component of many therapeutic approaches, such as applied behavior analysis (ABA), cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). Therapists use reinforcement to help clients overcome anxiety, depression, addiction, and other mental health challenges.
• Business: Employers use reinforcement to motivate employees, improve productivity, and increase job satisfaction. They use bonuses, promotions, recognition, and other rewards to reinforce desired behaviors, such as meeting sales targets, exceeding performance expectations, and working effectively in teams.
• Animal Training: Reinforcement is the foundation of animal training. Trainers use food, toys, praise, and other rewards to teach animals new tricks, improve their obedience, and manage their behavior.

Ethical Considerations

While reinforcement is a powerful tool, it's essential to use it ethically and responsibly. Here are some key considerations:

• Informed Consent: Individuals should be informed about the reinforcement strategies being used and should have the opportunity to consent to them. This is particularly important when working with vulnerable populations, such as children or individuals with disabilities.
• Least Restrictive Procedures: Reinforcement strategies should be the least restrictive necessary to achieve the desired outcomes. This means starting with the simplest and most natural reinforcers and only using more intrusive or artificial reinforcers when necessary.
• Avoidance of Coercion: Reinforcement should never be used to coerce or manipulate individuals into doing something against their will. The goal is to empower individuals to make positive choices, not to control their behavior.
• Focus on Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is generally considered more ethical and effective than negative reinforcement. It focuses on building positive behaviors and creating a more positive and supportive environment.
• Regular Evaluation: Reinforcement strategies should be regularly evaluated to ensure that they are effective and that they are not having any unintended negative consequences.

Conclusion

Understanding the technical definition of a reinforcer is paramount for anyone seeking to understand and influence behavior. It is not merely a "reward," but a precise mechanism that, when applied correctly, can shape behavior in predictable and positive ways. By considering the various types of reinforcers, the factors that influence their effectiveness, and the ethical considerations involved, we can harness the power of reinforcement to create meaningful and lasting change in ourselves and others. Reinforcement, when used thoughtfully and ethically, is a powerful tool for learning, growth, and positive development.