Ap World History Unit 3 Study Guide

AP World History Unit 3 Study Guide: Land-Based Empires (1450-1750)

The period between 1450 and 1750 marks a significant transition in world history, witnessing the rise and consolidation of powerful land-based empires across Eurasia and Africa. These empires, fueled by new technologies, economic strategies, and administrative techniques, reshaped the political landscape and laid the foundations for future global interactions. This AP World History Unit 3 study guide provides a comprehensive overview of these empires, their characteristics, and their impact on the world.

I. Contextualizing the Period: Continuity and Change

Understanding the period from 1450-1750 requires acknowledging both continuities from earlier eras and the significant changes that shaped this period.

• Continuities:
  • Agricultural Basis: Most empires remained largely agrarian, relying on peasant labor for economic production.
  • Traditional Social Structures: Hierarchical social structures, often based on birth or religious status, persisted.
  • Importance of Trade Routes: Existing trade routes, such as the Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade network, continued to facilitate the exchange of goods and ideas.
• Changes:
  • Gunpowder Technology: The adoption and development of gunpowder technology revolutionized warfare and empire-building.
  • Centralized Power: Many empires sought to consolidate power under centralized rulers and bureaucracies.
  • Religious Divides: Religious differences, both within and between empires, led to conflicts and shaped political alliances.
  • Global Trade Networks: The emergence of new global trade networks, driven by European exploration and colonization, began to reshape global economic interactions.

II. Key Empires and Their Characteristics

This unit focuses on several major land-based empires, each with its unique characteristics:

A. The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, originating in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), expanded rapidly through conquest, eventually controlling vast territories in the Middle East, North Africa, and Eastern Europe.

• Rise and Expansion:
  • Military Prowess: The Ottoman army, equipped with gunpowder weapons and a highly organized structure, proved formidable in battle. The Janissaries, an elite infantry corps composed of Christian boys converted to Islam, played a crucial role in Ottoman military successes.
  • Fall of Constantinople (1453): The conquest of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, marked a turning point in Ottoman history, establishing the empire as a major power in the Eastern Mediterranean.
  • Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566): Suleiman's reign marked the peak of Ottoman power, characterized by military expansion, legal reforms, and cultural flourishing.
• Governance and Administration:
  • Centralized Bureaucracy: The Ottoman Empire developed a highly centralized bureaucracy, with officials appointed by the Sultan.
  • Devshirme System: The devshirme system, a practice of recruiting Christian boys from conquered territories to serve in the military and bureaucracy, provided a loyal and skilled workforce.
  • Religious Tolerance (with limitations): While Islam was the dominant religion, the Ottoman Empire generally practiced religious tolerance towards Christians and Jews, who were organized into millets (self-governing religious communities). However, non-Muslims were subject to higher taxes and other restrictions.
• Economic Activities:
  • Control of Trade Routes: The Ottoman Empire controlled vital trade routes connecting Europe and Asia, generating significant revenue through taxation and customs duties.
  • Agriculture: Agriculture remained a primary economic activity, with the empire relying on peasant labor for food production.
  • Craft Production: Ottoman cities were centers of craft production, producing textiles, ceramics, and other goods for domestic consumption and export.
• Cultural Achievements:
  • Architecture: Ottoman architecture, exemplified by the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul, blended Islamic, Byzantine, and Persian influences.
  • Literature and Arts: Ottoman scholars and artists made significant contributions to literature, poetry, and the visual arts.
  • Scientific Advancements: Ottoman scientists made advancements in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.
• Decline:
  • Internal Problems: Inefficient governance, corruption, and succession struggles weakened the empire from within.
  • External Pressures: European powers, with their superior military technology and expanding colonial empires, posed a growing threat to Ottoman territories.
  • Economic Competition: Competition from European traders in the Indian Ocean and other regions undermined Ottoman control of trade routes.

B. The Safavid Empire

The Safavid Empire, based in Persia (modern-day Iran), established Shia Islam as its state religion, leading to conflict with the Sunni Ottoman Empire.

• Rise and Expansion:
  • Ismail I (1501-1524): Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid Empire, declared Shia Islam the official religion of the empire, uniting Persia under his rule.
  • Military Conflicts with the Ottomans: The Safavids and Ottomans engaged in frequent wars, fueled by religious differences and territorial disputes. The Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, though an Ottoman victory, marked the beginning of a long period of conflict.
  • Abbas I (1588-1629): Abbas I reformed the military, strengthened the bureaucracy, and promoted trade, leading to a period of Safavid resurgence.
• Governance and Administration:
  • Centralized Authority: The Safavid Shah (king) held absolute power, ruling through a centralized bureaucracy.
  • Ghulam System: Similar to the Ottoman devshirme, the Safavids utilized the ghulam system, recruiting slave soldiers from conquered territories to form a loyal military force.
  • Religious Policy: The Safavids enforced Shia Islam as the state religion, persecuting Sunni Muslims and other religious minorities.
• Economic Activities:
  • Silk Trade: The Safavid Empire controlled the silk trade, exporting Persian silk to Europe and other regions.
  • Agriculture: Agriculture remained a primary economic activity, with the empire relying on peasant labor for food production.
  • Carpet Weaving: Persian carpets became renowned for their quality and artistry, becoming a major export commodity.
• Cultural Achievements:
  • Architecture: Safavid architecture, characterized by intricate tilework and monumental structures, blended Persian and Islamic styles. Isfahan, the Safavid capital, became a center of architectural innovation.
  • Art and Literature: Safavid artists produced exquisite miniatures, calligraphy, and other works of art. Persian literature flourished under Safavid patronage.
  • Religious Scholarship: Shia religious scholars played a prominent role in Safavid society, interpreting religious law and guiding the Shah.
• Decline:
  • Internal Strife: Succession disputes, court intrigues, and economic problems weakened the Safavid Empire.
  • Religious Intolerance: The Safavid's strict adherence to Shia Islam alienated Sunni Muslims and other religious minorities, leading to internal unrest.
  • External Invasions: Afghan tribes invaded Persia in the early 18th century, leading to the collapse of the Safavid dynasty.

C. The Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire, established in the Indian subcontinent, united much of India under Muslim rule and fostered a vibrant culture.

• Rise and Expansion:
  • Babur (1526-1530): Babur, a descendant of Timur (Tamerlane), invaded India and established the Mughal Empire after defeating the Delhi Sultanate at the Battle of Panipat in 1526.
  • Akbar (1556-1605): Akbar, considered the greatest Mughal emperor, expanded the empire through conquest and implemented policies of religious tolerance, known as Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith), to promote unity among Hindus and Muslims.
  • Aurangzeb (1658-1707): Aurangzeb reversed Akbar's policy of religious tolerance, imposing Islamic law and persecuting Hindus, which led to rebellions and weakened the empire.
• Governance and Administration:
  • Centralized Bureaucracy: The Mughal Empire developed a centralized bureaucracy, with officials appointed based on merit and loyalty.
  • Mansabdari System: The mansabdari system, a hierarchical ranking system based on military service, organized the Mughal nobility and ensured their loyalty to the emperor.
  • Land Revenue System: The Mughals implemented a standardized land revenue system, which generated significant income for the empire.
• Economic Activities:
  • Textile Production: India became a major producer of textiles, exporting cotton cloth to Europe and other regions.
  • Agriculture: Agriculture remained a primary economic activity, with the empire relying on peasant labor for food production.
  • Trade: The Mughal Empire engaged in extensive trade with Europe, Asia, and Africa, exporting textiles, spices, and other goods.
• Cultural Achievements:
  • Architecture: Mughal architecture, exemplified by the Taj Mahal, blended Persian, Islamic, and Indian styles.
  • Art and Literature: Mughal artists produced exquisite miniatures, calligraphy, and other works of art. Persian and Urdu literature flourished under Mughal patronage.
  • Religious Syncretism: The Mughal Empire witnessed a blending of Hindu and Muslim religious traditions, particularly during the reign of Akbar.
• Decline:
  • Religious Intolerance: Aurangzeb's policies of religious intolerance alienated Hindus and led to rebellions.
  • Succession Disputes: Succession disputes and court intrigues weakened the empire.
  • Rise of Regional Powers: The rise of regional powers, such as the Marathas and Sikhs, challenged Mughal authority.
  • European Influence: The growing influence of European trading companies, particularly the British East India Company, undermined Mughal control over trade and eventually led to the empire's collapse.

D. The Russian Empire

The Russian Empire, expanding from its base in Moscow, consolidated its control over vast territories in Eastern Europe and Siberia.

• Rise and Expansion:
  • Ivan III (the Great) (1462-1505): Ivan III consolidated Muscovite control over surrounding territories and declared himself Tsar (Czar), claiming to be the successor to the Byzantine emperors.
  • Ivan IV (the Terrible) (1533-1584): Ivan IV expanded Russian territory through conquest and centralized power under the Tsar. His reign was marked by brutality and political repression.
  • Peter the Great (1682-1725): Peter the Great implemented reforms to modernize Russia, westernizing its military, bureaucracy, and culture. He built St. Petersburg, a new capital city, to symbolize Russia's integration into Europe.
  • Catherine the Great (1762-1796): Catherine the Great continued Peter's policies of westernization and expansion, acquiring new territories in Poland and the Black Sea region.
• Governance and Administration:
  • Autocratic Rule: The Russian Tsar held absolute power, ruling through a centralized bureaucracy.
  • Service Nobility: The Russian nobility was required to serve the state in the military or bureaucracy in exchange for land and privileges.
  • Serfdom: Serfdom, a system of forced labor tied to the land, became increasingly entrenched in Russia during this period, providing a cheap labor force for the nobility.
• Economic Activities:
  • Agriculture: Agriculture remained a primary economic activity, with the empire relying on serf labor for food production.
  • Fur Trade: The fur trade in Siberia generated significant revenue for the Russian Empire.
  • Mining and Manufacturing: Peter the Great promoted the development of mining and manufacturing industries to support the Russian military.
• Cultural Achievements:
  • Orthodox Christianity: Orthodox Christianity played a central role in Russian culture and identity.
  • Westernization: Peter the Great promoted the adoption of Western European culture, including art, architecture, and fashion.
  • Literature and Arts: Russian literature and arts began to develop under Western influence.
• Challenges:
  • Serfdom: The institution of serfdom created social and economic inequality and hindered Russia's development.
  • Resistance to Westernization: Some Russians resisted Peter the Great's policies of westernization, viewing them as a threat to traditional Russian culture.
  • Geographic Challenges: The vast size and harsh climate of Russia posed challenges to transportation, communication, and economic development.

E. The Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty, established by the Manchus, expanded Chinese territory and maintained a conservative approach to foreign relations.

• Rise and Expansion:
  • Manchu Conquest: The Manchus, a nomadic people from Manchuria (northeastern China), conquered China in the mid-17th century, establishing the Qing Dynasty.
  • Kangxi Emperor (1661-1722): The Kangxi Emperor consolidated Qing rule, expanded Chinese territory, and promoted Confucianism.
  • Qianlong Emperor (1736-1796): The Qianlong Emperor oversaw a period of economic prosperity and territorial expansion, but also adopted a policy of isolationism, restricting foreign trade and influence.
• Governance and Administration:
  • Centralized Bureaucracy: The Qing Dynasty maintained a centralized bureaucracy based on Confucian principles.
  • Civil Service Examination System: The civil service examination system, based on Confucian classics, remained the primary means of recruiting government officials.
  • Dyarchy: The Qing government implemented a system of dyarchy, in which Manchus and Chinese shared positions of power.
• Economic Activities:
  • Agriculture: Agriculture remained a primary economic activity, with the empire relying on peasant labor for food production.
  • Textile Production: China remained a major producer of textiles, exporting silk and porcelain to Europe and other regions.
  • Tea Trade: The tea trade with Europe became increasingly important during this period.
• Cultural Achievements:
  • Confucianism: Confucianism remained the dominant philosophy and ideology of the Qing Dynasty.
  • Literature and Arts: Chinese literature and arts flourished under Qing patronage.
  • Porcelain Production: Chinese porcelain became renowned for its quality and artistry, becoming a major export commodity.
• Challenges:
  • Population Growth: Rapid population growth placed strain on resources and led to social unrest.
  • Corruption: Corruption within the government undermined Qing authority.
  • European Pressure: European powers, seeking access to Chinese markets, exerted increasing pressure on the Qing Dynasty.

III. Comparing Land-Based Empires

While each empire had its unique characteristics, several common themes and comparisons can be drawn:

• Use of Gunpowder Technology: All of these empires utilized gunpowder technology to expand their territories and consolidate their power.
• Centralized Governance: Most empires sought to establish centralized governments with strong rulers and bureaucracies.
• Agricultural Economies: All of these empires relied on agriculture as the primary economic activity, with peasant labor providing the bulk of production.
• Religious Influences: Religion played a significant role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of these empires, sometimes leading to conflict and sometimes promoting unity.
• Decline and Transformation: By the end of the period, many of these empires faced internal challenges and external pressures, paving the way for future transformations.

IV. Key Concepts and Themes

Understanding the following key concepts and themes is crucial for success on the AP World History exam:

• State-Building: The processes by which empires consolidated power, expanded their territories, and developed administrative structures.
• Centralization vs. Decentralization: The balance between centralized authority and regional autonomy within empires.
• Religious Conflict and Syncretism: The role of religion in shaping political alliances, causing conflict, and promoting cultural blending.
• Economic Systems: The economic activities and trade networks that sustained these empires.
• Social Hierarchies: The social structures and inequalities that characterized these societies.
• Cultural Exchange: The exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices between empires and regions.
• Continuity and Change: The enduring patterns and transformative changes that shaped this period in world history.

V. Preparing for the AP Exam

• Review Key Concepts: Thoroughly review the key concepts and themes outlined in this study guide.
• Study Specific Empires: Focus on the specific characteristics and histories of the Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal, Russian, and Qing Empires.
• Practice FRQs and DBQs: Practice answering Free-Response Questions (FRQs) and Document-Based Questions (DBQs) related to this unit.
• Analyze Primary Sources: Familiarize yourself with primary source documents from this period, such as letters, treaties, and travel accounts.
• Make Connections: Connect the events and developments of this period to earlier and later periods in world history.

Conclusion

The period from 1450 to 1750 witnessed the rise and consolidation of powerful land-based empires that reshaped the political and cultural landscape of Eurasia and Africa. By understanding the characteristics, achievements, and challenges of these empires, you can gain a deeper appreciation for this transformative period in world history. This AP World History Unit 3 study guide provides a framework for your studies, helping you to master the key concepts and themes that will be tested on the AP exam. Good luck!